The Abandoned Woman: Gender Subversion in Roman, Medieval, and Pre-Modernist Literature through the Feminist Intruder Theory

 The literary representation of the abandoned women assumes the role of challenging male dominated texts that overlook the consequences and repercussions of male actions on women. The abandoned woman is a complex and multifaceted figure– a woman with thoughts, emotion, and agency. Throughout literature, the abandoned woman evolves into different roles, whether that manifests in reclamation of agency, unwavering faith, or challenging the male hero, their stories shift the narrative from vilifying women to understanding them as products of their circumstances. The abandoned woman confronts the gendered power dynamics and patriarchal structure. She disrupts gendered narratives in the literary realm that lean into prioritization of the man’s world that values male betterment and consequently often marginalizes women. By reintegrating them into modern studies, it offers a reexamination of how abandoned women destabilize the dominant discourse. The portrayal of abandonment in literature, from the Roman, Medieval, and Pre-Modern period, is not only an exploration of suffering, but also coincides with dismantling gendered structures that maintain women’s exclusion from society. Through the context of gender studies and feminist theory, we can analyze how she serves as a reflection on broader human questions of gender dynamics and power. The abandoned woman emerges as a significant presence whose narrative challenges readers to think more critically about the intersection of gender, power, and societal expectations. In this essay, I use the framework of the Female Intruder Theory to critically re-examine important figures in the role of abandoned women in literature, particularly Medea from Ovid’s Heroides, Héloïse from the Letters of Heloise to Abelard, and Miss Havisham from Charles Dickens Great Expectations to understand how these abandoned women subvert dominant gendered texts.

The lasting impact of the abandoned women in literature, particularly recognizing the origins that stem from ancient Greek drama, can be more understood through what is known as the The Female Intruder Theory (FIT). Academic writer, Michael Shaw analyzes this literary gendered trope in his article “The Female Intruder: Women in Fifth-Century Drama,” and examines the misportrayal of women in broader literary culture and put in often vilified roles. By bringing these representations into question, Shaw develops the stance of whether knowing if these abandoned women are villains, or rather members of their society who defy the restrictive norms. He asks, “Is she as foreign as an interplanetary visitor, or is she a true monster, something which belongs to a recognizable group but which somehow violates the norms of that group?” (Shaw 258).  Throughout his essay, Shaw argues that the abandoned woman that first emerges in fifth-century dramas conclusively sets the plot in motion. Her abandonment is often a result of betrayal by a man, which then compels other characters to engage with this “intrusive” character. They are often depicted as breaking from their determined roles—roles that vary depending on their circumstance, whether that is to provide unmoving emotional support (while also not being overly emotional,) maintain stoic patience and silence, or to continue domestic responsibilities. When they defy these expectations, they become marked as the “bad women,”  which Shaw clarifies in the context of Athenian women: 

It is always clear in the drama that these are not foreign women acting normally but… women acting abnormally, intruding into the male domain. They are all, to borrow T. B. L. Webster's phrase, “bad women.” This label is not merely a narrative device but reflects a deep-rooted cultural belief system that positions women within a narrow framework of acceptability (256). 

When she challenges the male-sphere, she is seen as an outsider and thus is categorized as the “other.” Shaw’s analysis reveals that male counterparts, both within these plays and in a broader cultural context, often feel threatened by women who refuse to conform. Shaw notes, “time after time, for example, a man in a Greek play tells a woman that she should be silent, or that she should speak briefly; yet the admonition is nearly always fruitless” (256). The abandoned woman who speaks out or acts differently disrupts societal expectations. Silence can also be just as rebellious as speech. If a woman chooses silence, as will be mentioned later, she is still perceived as defying societal expectations. The idea that even silence can be seen as a form of subversion speaks powerfully, emphasizing how women are always at risk of being regarded as barbaric. This contradiction reveals a broader theme in Greek drama: that any divergence from the constrictive roles of women, whether through voicing dissent or withdrawing from the social world, is met with criticism. Shaw reflects “there is no crime in the man's world except acting to his own disadvantage” (257). FIT offers reflection on the nuanced roles that abandoned women play in literature and how this extends beyond the narrative, revealing the cultural imbalance and fear surrounding disrupted gender roles.

Applying this theory to a range of literary texts, beginning with Ovid’s Heroides,  a collection of Greek and Roman narratives from both heroines and heroes. Greek poet Euripides' tragedy, Medea tells the story of a woman who is wrongfully abandoned by her husband, Jason, for another woman. Her abandonment leads her into a tempest of sadness, anger, and betrayal. Medea’s form of agency emerges as violence, seeking to make Jason feel the same pain he inflicted upon her. In the ancient play, Medea’s decision to kill her own children stems from a combination of motherly protection, revenge, and despair. Although she is villainized in the play, upon deeper examination, this violence becomes reflected in how her pain manifests itself into disruptive power. Medea is the reason for Jason's ability to succeed. The stability of his status is dependent on her. In Ovid’s letter, she reminds him how she was the one to help him steal the golden fleece– a challenge for Jason voiced by her father, Aeëtes. Her anger is understandable, she is betrayed by the man she had once sacrificed her own fathers relationship with in her own act of betrayal. She expresses to Jason “I am now a barbarian in your eyes, after everything, / I now seem to you a pauper, and malignant; / But I was the one who closed its fiery eyes and in a magic sleep / and gave you the Fleece to safely steal away” (Ovid 105-108).  Medea’s words emphasize her once-central role that seems to be irrelevant now that he is established. Her defiance, where a man can freely commit adultery and move on without repercussions disrupts established gender norms and challenges the silence expected of women. Medea assumes a masculine role in this text, thus becoming labeled as the “other,” an unloving mother defined by immorality.

 Her frustration is clear when she says “I want you – I’ve earned you, you gave yourself to me” (197). Medea takes control, reversing the gender dynamic between her and Jason and asserting her dominance over him, reminding him that his achievements are all due to her influence. In this moment, she is not afraid to embody male confidence, which is interpreted as a threat to the patriarchal structure. As explored in Shaw’s FIT, her defiance becomes labeled as the “bad” woman, whose legacy continues to provoke discourse centuries later over the ethics of her actions. Understanding Medea’s position, the loss of power, and the depth of her grief helps contextualize why she chooses violence and the profound impact it has on her conscience. As she writes, “I’ll go where rage takes me. I may regret what I do, / but I also regret looking out for my unfaithful husband” (209-210). Medea’s story reshapes the image of the abandoned woman as a whole, subverting these gender norms by acting out in ways that are traditionally associated with masculinity. 

Héloïse in The Letters of Heloise to Abelard (c. 1113), serves as another significant example of FIT. Héloïse’s position as an abandoned woman causes her to disrupt the traditional male-dominated society. In the second and fourth letter, she expresses the undying burden from the love she carries for Abelard, her personal relationship to God, and her own sorrow. She confronts Abelard’s abandonment and questions religious authority, rather than blindly following God– in which he carefully expects her to do so. In these letters, it becomes evident that Abelard relies on religion to excuse his wrongful behavior and manipulates Héloïse to feel guilty for their separation, blaming her and her lack of complete devotion. Héloïse calls into question how he uses the religious structures to avoid the shameful consequences of their situation, specifically his neglectful actions: “Why, after our entry into religion, which was your decision alone, have I been so neglected and forgotten by you” (Abelard 53).  Religious popularity emerged during the Medieval era, specifically Christian faith.  She expresses how she completely devoted herself to him, rather than religion:

You are the sole cause of my sorrow, and you alone can grant me the grace of consolation. You alone have the power to make me sad, to bring me happiness or comfort; you alone have so great a debt to repay me, particularly now when I have carried out all of your orders so implicitly that when I when powerless to oppose you in anything, I found strength to destroy myself (51). 

Her unconditional love conveys the imbalance of power that men use religion to preserve their position, while women are left to bear the burden of their suffering in silence, rather than conforming to the patriarchal structure that is clear in religion. Héloïse’s critique shows that even within the religious world, male ambition and fulfillment is prioritized, leaving women marginalized. Heloise asserts her agency through her intellect and voice. By engaging in both theological and philosophical discourse, she challenges the expectation that women should remain passive and accept this difference. Her willingness to speak out against Abelard and the societal structures that fail to protect her reflects ideas in FIT, affirming that women who defy gender roles disrupt male-dominated structures are cast as outsiders. This is revealed in Abelard’s response to her honest, vulnerable, and intellectual writing: “In your case…if you see your advantage in prolonging my miseries, you are proved an enemy rather than a friend” (78). Héloïse’s story highlights the ways women navigate a world that marginalizes them. Her refusal to be passive, combined with her intellectual and religious engagement, disrupts not only Abelard’s arrogant self-indulgence and ignorance, but also the gender imbalance present in the divine world. 

Miss Havisham, the female anti-hero from Charles Dickens 1861 novel Great Expectations, embodies the reactions of gynophobia– an irrational fear of women from society. She represents vengeance and decay, impacting those she encounters. Her moment of abandonment occurs when her fiance, Compeyson, leaves her at the altar. This betrayal transforms her  as a woman of status into a woman defined by brokenness. This abandonment develops her into a state of constant mourning. While her actions are vindictive and manipulative specifically towards Estella (and then affecting Pip) this trait also co-exists with the reasoning behind her manipulative nature. Her form of agency appears in her environment. She creates a destiny of anguish, hoping to break the male world around her. 

Upon Pip’s first interaction with Miss Havisham, he notes the frozen state of surroundings, “it was when I stood before her, avoiding her eyes, that I took note of the surrounding objects in detail, and saw that her watch had stopped at twenty minutes to nine, and that a clock in the room had stopped at twenty minutes to nine” (Dickens 112) This significant detail of time explains why Miss Havisham is unable to move past an emotionally defining moment in her life. She perpetuates this fear of the withering bride and the consequences of failed expectations. Her appearance is compared to a skeleton, reinforcing her status as intruder in the world of the living. Dickens writes in Pip’s first interaction, “‘Look at me’, said Miss Havisham. ‘You are not afraid of a woman who has never seen the sun since you were born?’ I regret to state that I was not afraid of telling the enormous lie comprehended in the answer ‘No”’ (112).

 Instead of conforming to the role of an emotionally dejected woman who is expected to seek happiness through marriage, she becomes the "bad woman" who haunts the male heroes, particularly Pip, and becomes an embodiment of male fear and cultural "otherness," as described by Shaw. Her deliberate choice to weaponize her pain against men, particularly through her manipulation of Estell’s cold-hearted nature is her way of maintaining agency. As problematic as it appears, this emerges as perhaps a sense of control and independence in the face of abandonment. Her failure to conform to the expected trajectory of a woman’s life, marriage, motherhood, and social participation—upholding their status– exiles her to the position of an outsider. She physically represents the emotional exhaustion and anguish that she feels: “the bride within the bridal dress had withered like the dress, and like the flowers, and had no brightness left but the brightness of her sunken eyes” (111). Miss Havisham’s tragic story echoes the FIT by showing how an abandoned woman steps into a space that disrupts the male-world.

Thus, the literary portrayal of abandoned women challenges male-dominated narratives that ignore female suffering and resilience. Characters such as Medea, Héloïse, and Miss Havisham challenge traditional roles, prompting discourse to reconsider female marginalization and the structures that uphold it. The Female Intruder Theory (FIT) frames their resistance as a critique of gender power dynamics, reconsidering the simplified reduced label “bad” or “other” and in turn, reveals the misogynistic undertones that persist in the literary realm. 

Abelard, Heloise. The Letters of Abelard and Heloise.

Dickens, Charles. Great Expectations. Dover Publications, 1994.

Ovid. Heroides. Translated by Paul Murgatroyd, et al., Routledge, 2016.

Shaw, Michael. “The Female Intruder: Women in Fifth-Century Drama.” Classical Philology, vol. 70, no. 4, 1975, pp. 255–66. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/268229. Accessed 6 Dec. 2024.